BBC E-mail: Shell 'partly liable' for spills

New development on our Niger Delta cast study guys. Not much has been done only one case of compensation give out but thought it might be useful.

Vinny



** Shell 'partly liable' for spills **
A Dutch court rules that a subsidiary of Anglo-Dutch oil giant Shell is partially responsible for oil pollution in Nigeria's Niger Delta region.
< http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-21258653 >

Solving Problems in Alaska

Due to the constant snowfall and arctic conditions in Alaska, the build up of snow on top of many people's roof tops can cause ice dams which are often a major inconvenience to people living in cold environments. These ice dams can cause leaks in homes which can cause major structural damages to homes in cold environments. The Alaskan people have come up with a solution in order to prevent these ice dams from causing harm by inventing Removable snow guards which sit on top of a roof. The Removable Snow Guard allows you to control the snow load on your metal roof. When these guards are installed on a metal roof they do two things, keep snow from sliding off and create ice dams. The removable Snow Guard can keep over two feet of snow from sliding off a metal roof. When you stop the snow from sliding off a rood, ice dams will form. The removable snow barrier of the Alaskan Snow guard allows you to remove the ice dams any time they might become a problem, thus preventing any leaks that could cause inconvenience along the way.

Covering Glaciers with blankets

At the top of Andermatt ski resort in Switzerland lies the Gurschen glacier and glacial melting is a problem for ski resorts as the melt water falls onto their slopes and melts them and also a melting glacier is not safe for people to ski on, this then looses the resort money and also is harming the cold environment. To combat this scientists have developed a synthetic material that covers over 2500 meters squared effectively becoming a giant glacial blanket but instead of warming up the glacier (as this would be ridiculous and counter-productive) the material reflects that Sun's UV rays that land on the glacier back into the atmosphere preventing it from melting. The glacial blanket is however still in the testing stages and is heavily criticized by the WWF but if it works it will become used more widely.

V.Lombardo 

Electric cars in Norway

Norway Electric Cars Case Study

More Nissan Leaf cars were bought in Norway than in the entire United States during 2012, despite the US having a population 60 times larger.

During 2012 there were over 10,000 sales of electric vehicles, taking them to approximately 5.2% of all vehicle sales.

Electric vehicle sales are so high in Norway that the Nissan Leaf is number 13th out of the top 20 best-selling cars in the country.

How did Norway achieve such high electric vehicle sales?

So called "Comfort Incentives":

Its capital city, Oslo, allows electric vehicle drivers to use bus lanes, escaping rush hour traffic.

In Oslo parking spaces are free for electric vehicles.

Infrastructure:

Norway contains over 3,500 charging stations.

Of the charging stations, 100 of them are "fast-charging posts"

Economic Incentives

Import taxes on fuel in Norway make electric vehicles affordable and similar to petrol and diesel based vehicles.

It turns out Norway's low carbon population aren't too concerned about being green

A "green car" organisation called Gröna Bil conducted a study which found that only about 5% of drivers would choose EVs for green reasons.

The rest of drivers would only consider the low carbon alternatives if the price, convenience and comfort offered were just right.

It has also been predicted that the number of electric vehicles will continue to increase to 200,000 by 2020.

Sources

http://www.greenoptimistic.com/2013/01/04/norway-electric-vehicles/#.UQbZZ7997Z5

H.Cavill

EU Clean Fuel Strategy

EU proposes "Clean Fuel Strategy" following an increase in estimated low carbon vehicle sales

During 2012 in Europe, hybrid cars, plug-in hybrid cars and electric cars accounted for just 0.7% of automotive sales. However, alongside incoming EU regulation to create infrastructure and force development, sales of low carbon vehicles are estimated to rapidly increase over the incoming years.

EU Clean Fuel Strategy

On the 24th of January last Thursday, Commission Vice President Siim Kallas revealed the launch of the EU Clean Fuel Strategy, to be reached by 2020. The plan will cost €10 billion mostly funded by industry and intends to tackle the lack of infrastructure for low carbon vehicles.

The plan has set out quotas to increase the number of filling stations for electric, hydrogen, compressed natural gas and liquefied natural gas.

So what does this mean for the UK?

An increase in the number for electric vehicle charging points from 703 last year to 1.22 million (Germany: 1,937 to 1.5 million, France: 1,600 to 970,000).

A maximum distance between hydrogen refuelling stations of 300km to tackle "range anxiety".

A maximum distance between liquefied natural gas terminals of 400km for trucks.

A maximum distance between compressed natural gas points every 150km.

Common standards for hydrogen, CNG and LNG filling stations should be developed by December 2015.

Electric Vehicles

The verdict of a study by Pike Research has forecasted that the percentage will leap to a 4% share of the market by 2020 to 827,000 vehicle sales annually within the EU.

The website nextgreencar.com has also predicted a large increase in sales and recently told the Observer it expects the total number of electric cars in the UK to double from around 3,000 to 6,000 in 2013, as cheaper models go on sale and more charging points are installed.

The United Kingdom, Germany, France, Norway, the Netherlands and Sweden are estimated to purchase the most electric cars within the EU, accounting for 67% of the market.

What are the benefits of driving electric?

Some electric vehicles cost as much as a quarter per mile to drive compared to petrol and diesel vehicles.

The UK government offers a £5,000 grant to help people buy an electric vehicle (launched in January 2011).

They are generally silent, removing associated noise pollution.

They are becoming increasingly affordable (for example Renault's £13,650 ZOE, which comes with a £70 monthly battery hire fee)

Prices of electric cars are decreasing rapidly, for example the Nissan Leaf recently dropped in price by £3,800.

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles

Electric vehicles are viewed as inferior by many when compared to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. These vehicles are powered by combining hydrogen with oxygen from the air.

So why are they superior to electric? (Benefits)

They can fill up in minutes at a hydrogen pump, much like a petrol one, compared to many electric cars which can take up to 8 hours to recharge.

And they do not have the "range anxiety" experienced with electric vehicles as they can drive several times more than the average 160km electric battery vehicle.

If superior, why aren't sales taking off?

These vehicles are seriously expensive, and are still too expensive for the average consumer.

There is currently little infrastructure for these vehicles, the oil companies owning petrol stations are yet to jump on board and install pumps.

Unlike electric cars and plug-in hybrids they cannot be charged at home via an electric plug, normally this takes place over night as it takes several hours.

Luckily though businesses within the EU are storming ahead with plans to develop infrastructure for these vehicles. For example Daimler has joined with gas company Linde to install 20 hydrogen filling stations in Germany.

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles have been notoriously expensive and are not yet as cheap as electric vehicles, however prices are significantly lowering. For example the South Korean group Hyundai has revealed expectations to halve production costs for these vehicles to £29,300.

Conclusion

So it seems there are increasing sales of low carbon vehicles, particularly for electric cars. However taking into account the Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles practicality, if the price drops to that of electric vehicles it will be interesting to see which comes out on top.

At least the EU is taking the important steps to reduce our dependence on oil.

Sources

http://www.thegreencarwebsite.co.uk/blog/index.php/2013/01/03/report-electric-vehicles-set-for-huge-spike-in-sales/

http://in.reuters.com/article/2013/01/28/us-daimer-ford-nissan-idINBRE90R0CO20130128

http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2013/jan/08/electric-car-sales-2012

http://www.greenchipstocks.com/articles/electric-car-sales-growth/2181

http://www.euractiv.com/climate-environment/brussels-clears-road-electric-ve-news-517378

H.Cavill

Antarctic Fish Under Threat

A Yale-led study of the evolutionary history of Antarctic fish and their "anti-freeze" proteins illustrates how tens of millions of years ago, a lineage of fish adapted to newly formed polar conditions – and how today they are now endangered by a rapid rise in ocean temperatures.

"A rise of 2 degrees Centigrade of water temperature will likely have a devastating impact on this Antarctic fish lineage, which is so well adapted to water at freezing temperatures," said Thomas Near, associate professor of ecology and evolutionary biology.

Anti-freeze chemicals confer protection
The successful origin of these fish and their diversification into 100 different species, collectively called notothenioids, is a textbook case of how evolution operates. Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History has one of the most important collections of these specimens in the world.

A period of rapid cooling led to mass extinction of fish acclimated to a warmer Southern Ocean. The acquisition of so-called antifreeze glycoproteins enabled notothenioids to survive in seas with frigid temperatures. As they adapted to vacant ecological niches, many new species of notothenioids arose and contributed to the rich biodiversity of marine life found today in the waters of Antarctica.

Notothenioids account for much of the diversity in the fish to be found in the Antarctic region, and they also play a key role in the food chain, being hunted by larger predators, including penguins, toothed whales, and seals. However, the new study suggests the acquisition of the antifreeze glycoproteins 22 to 42 million years ago was not the only reason for the successful adaptation of the Antarctic notothenioids. The largest radiation of notothenioid fish species into new habitats occurred at least 10 million years after the first appearance of glycoproteins, according to this study.

"The evolution of antifreeze was often thought of as a 'smoking gun,' triggering the diversification of these fishes, but we found evidence that this adaptive radiation is not linked to a single trait, but to a combination of factors," Near said.

Their vulnerability today

Now the same fish are endangered by warming of the Antarctic seas. This evolutionary success story is threatened by climate change that has made the Southern Ocean around Antarctica one of the fastest-warming regions on Earth. The same traits that enabled the fish to survive and thrive on a cooling planet make them particularly susceptible to a warming one, notes Near.

"Given their strong polar adaptations and their inability to acclimate to warmer water temperatures, climate change could devastate this most interesting lineage of fish with its distinctive evolutionary history," Near explained.

J. Phillips

Is the UK uniquely bad when it comes to dealing with snow?

For the third year in a row the UK has suffered snow induced chaos, but why can't we cope?

One fundamental reason is the cost. The cost of grit, its storage and gritting machines is apparently too high to completely clear every road in Britain.

But how do countries such as CANADA cope?

Let's use airports as an example.  HUNDREDS of thousands of stranded UK air passengers could have been spared misery if airport bosses had planned better for the cold snap, according to an aviation expert.

Airports in CANADA allow planes to land and take off with minimal disruption.

How?

They are equipped with snow ploughs and under-runway heating mechanisms. They anticipate the bad weather quicker than we do. They do get much longer periods of bad weather but they invest in making sure they have got many snow ploughs on standby and people to clear the runway quickly.

The situation in the UK was preventable. This could have been planned for. The weather has been changing predictably and Gatwick doesn't seem to have anticipated this. Snow has fallen earlier each year and it needs to plan for that.

Yakutsk Management

With the Lena River being navigable in the summer, there are various boat cruises offered, including upriver to the Lena Pillars, and downriver tours which visit spectacular scenery in the lower reaches and the Lena delta.

Many mining companies have offices in Yakutsk including ALROSA, whose diamond mines in Yakutia account for about 20% of the world's rough diamond output.

Yakutsk is also home of some theatres and museums such as Sakha theater and the Mammoth Museum to keep people involved in the community

Yakutsk State University is situated in the city there are also branches of the Russian Academy of Sciences to provide opportunities for the young due to the difficulty of travel.

A Ciuro

Saas Fee resort management schemes

The ski resort of Saas Fee has adopted sustainable measures with enthusiasm in its efforts to preserve its natural and cultural heritage. Restrictive building and zoning laws, its commitment to take environmental concerns, makes Saas Fee a pioneer in the Swiss Alps. Saas Fee applies a fee based on the 'polluters pay' principle. Polluters pay forcing hotel and shop owners to pay for each rubbish bag produced has significantly reduced the amount of litter, encouraging hotel and shop owners to recycle. Due to that, there are number of social and economic benefits- the towns are quieter, cleaner and more desirable to tourists as a result therefore injecting more money into the local economy.

Saas Fee ski resort sustainability by M. Skavronskiy   

How Does Moscow Deal With The Snow?

Schools open, trains running normally, airports functioning without delay. Welcome to Moscow where, unlike paralyzed Britain, life continued much as usual yesterday, despite 15cm of snow and temperatures as low as -27C (-17F). From the early hours of yesterday an army of snegoborochnaya mashina – snow ploughs - took to Moscow's streets.
The city council employs some 50,000 workers to clear snow from yards. Result: everyone gets to work on time. Marina Orlova, a spokeswoman for the council, said: "For us winter starts on October 15. It ends in March. We have a committee of experts who meet every day at 5pm. They include a weather expert and an official from the crisis ministry. If there's going to be snow, we load up trucks and send them out."

Martian glaciers and the one-way trip to visit them

 It turns out that glaciers aren't only on the planet Earth, evidence from the HiWish program, run by NASA, has shown that there are also glaciers on the planet Mars.

Having discovered these landforms, geographers everywhere are buzzing to get on-board Mars One's one-way trip to establish the first human settlement in 2023 to explore them, but more on that later.

NASA released the first photos taken by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in April 2010, and on this blog post are photos released as of September 2010 by their HiRISE camera.

An important difference in the formation of Martian glaciers is that because of the low atmospheric pressure, ablation near the surface occurs because of sublimation rather than melting. This means that the solid ice turns straight into a gas rather than a liquid.

There is recent evidence that water ice still exists in the form of glaciers covered by a layer of insulating rock. As of March 2010 when scientists published a radar study of an area called Deuteronilus Mensae, it has been thought that there is ice lying beneath a few meters of rock debris.

The photo below shows evidence of a zone of accumulation of snow at the top, the glacier having moved down a valley and then having spread out on a plain. The location is Prontonilus Mensae in Ismenuis Lacus quadrangle. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wide_view_of_glacier_showing_image_field.JPG)
　
 

The next photo shows an enlargement of an area within the previous image of what is thought to be a terminal moraine of an alpine glacier. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glacier_close_up_with_hirise.JPG)
　
　



 
Unfortunately a school trip to the Martian North pole is out of the geography department's budget. However, luckily for us geographers NASA is already visiting the planets surface on a "robotic space mission" (the first of its kind) called MER (Mars Exploration Rover Mission). Below is a graphical representation of one of the mars exploration rovers. (Source: http://marsrover.nasa.gov/mission/spacecraft_surface_rover.html)
　


Although the mission title is bland, NASA decided to call the two visiting robot rovers Spirit and Opportunity. The rovers are currently exploring the Martian surface and investigating Martian geology by characterizing wide ranges of Martian rocks.

Better yet... I'm sure our keen Bedford School geographers are excited to find out who will be one of the four first human visitors to Mars on the one-way trip in 2023 funded by the non-profit organisation: Mars One.

If interested you can watch the introduction video from Mars One on that here:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=n4tgkyUBkbY#!

And if you think you're up for the trip... review yourself here:
http://mars-one.com/en/faq-en/21-faq-selection/251-do-i-qualify-to-apply

To conclude... It turns out that we're not actually as far off as we think to do get busy with some practical Martian geography. Good luck with your applications.

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciers_on_Mars
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HiWish_program
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover
http://marsrover.nasa.gov/mission/spacecraft_surface_rover.html
http://mars-one.com/en/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wide_view_of_glacier_showing_image_field.JPG
http://www.uahirise.org/ESP_018857_2225

Niger Delta - C O'Brian

Niger Delta - M Skavronskiy

Niger Delta - J Philips

What happens if a person falls into a volcano?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kq7DDk8eLs8

This video shows what would happen (to some extent) to a person if they fell into a volcano. It is depicted in films and tv that people sink and melt... well in fact this video shows that if an object made of organic matter falls into a lava pit it in fact... explodes. This is due to our bodies being made mostly of water and this then rapidly turns to steam which explodes out of the casing and causes a small eruption. This bag only weighed 30kg so imagine if a fully grown man fell in... how big of an eruption would it be!? There is some more detail in the comments box if you want but just thought this was interesting and quite cool to watch (no pun intended).

Thanks,

Vinny

Niger Delta - A Ciuro

Miger Delta - B Barfoot

Niger delta - V Lombardo

Blogging task 2

Create a Storify for the Issue of Oil extraction in the Niger Delta.

Maintain the bias of the Ogoni people, the Government or Shell. As you were in the debate.

Include, images, maps, video, news, social media etc

Email the embed code of your storify in slideshow format to the blog email address by Monday 21st January.

See TWR's example below:

Hoff Crab and Ice Fish

The "Hoff" crab, a yet-to-be-named species whose nickname comes from Baywatch actor David Hasselhoff. Recently discovered on a hydrothermal vent system in Antarctica, the 'Hoff' crab is a type of yeti crab that farms bacteria on the fur of its chest as its main food source. The crab lives in a relatively warm environment in comparison to the cold of Antarctica. Swarming around steamy vents 1.5 miles deep.

Antarctica is also home to Icefish, a type of see-through fish with glycoproteins instead of red blood cells. These proteins attach to small ice crystals in the fish's body and work as an antifreeze, enabling it to live in freezing water. Icefish are from a group of fish spread out to fill a lot of the niches that would be filled by other types of fish in the rest of the world.

By J.Phillips

The Canada Lynx is a rare feline which resembles other species of the mid-sized Lynx genus.

The Canada Lynx can be found within Tundra, rocky areas or forest regions within Canada, Alaska and small parts of Northern USA. These Lynx's are more often in forest areas but can also be found in Tundra and rocky areas.

Typically they're larger than a Bobcat and twice the size of a domestic cat.

The appearance of a Canada Lynx is similar to that of a Eurasian lynx. The feline has broad paws and long legs which make walking through snow easier. They have a dense silvery-brown coat for warmth, ruffed face and tufted ears.

Canada Lynx's have an average weight of 8 to 11 kg (18 to 24 lb), average 80 to 105 cm (31 to 41 in) in length, and have an average shoulder height of 48 to 56 cm (19 to 22 in). Males are larger than females.

The Canada Lynx is a carnivorous predator; it has four long canines for puncturing and gripping its prey. These canines have nerves which allow the Lynx to feel where it's biting its prey. It has four carnassials that cut meat into small pieces and it chews the meat with its head to the side.

The Canada lynx is a secretive and mostly nocturnal animal, although it may be active at any time of day. They're also very capable swimmers. They hunt mostly Snowshoe Hares, cousins of the Artic Hare.

It became extinct in Colorado in the 1970s, however were reintroduced back into the area successfully.

 

They're currently listed as "threatened" in most areas by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, however are of "least concern" in others.

The Arctic fox

The arctic fox lives further north than any other fox. It can often be found in Northern and western Alaska and the southern to northern territories of Canada. Other common areas where these animals are found are in Russia, Greenland and northern Quebec. The arctic fox's adaptation to its sub-zero habitat includes a compact body with short legs, short ears, dense fur, and thickly haired foot pads. The compact body with short legs provides a low surface area: volume ratio to minimise heat loss, whilst the thickly haired foot pads insulate against the cold and provide traction on ice. Arctic fox feed primarily on small mammals, including lemmings and tundra voles. Fox denning near rocky cliffs along the seacoast often depend heavily on nesting seabirds such as auklets and puffins to give themselves sufficient energy during the cold winter months to survive. The arctic fox is able to catch lemmings and small rodents under the snow. This gives them an advantage over many other animals in cold environment because they can often find extra food when all their normal diet is either eaten or migrated. The Arctic fox walk along on top of the snow listening for the small creatures under the snow. When they hear one they jump up and down to break through the snow with their front paws. Once the snow is broken they can grab their prey and benefit from the nutrients they provide.

Arctic Hare

The Arctic Hare:

The Arcitc Hare live in the Arctic tundra mostly in Northern Canada and Greenland. They do not hibernate during the long, cold winters but survive them. To do this they have very thick fur and a low surface area: volume ratio to minimise heat loss. The best example of this is their ears; they are much shorter than the ears of a normal hare. An example of behavioural adaptation is that they dig holes under the ground and huddle together for warmth. Like normal hares they have long strong back legs which make them extremely fast and can reach speeds of 40mph!! Along with their fast legs another adaptation to survive the preadators of the arctic is that they have a fully white coat which gives excellent camouflage against the snowy white landscape protecting them from said predators such as wolfs, foxes and bears. Even more amazingly their fur changes colour in the spring to a blue-grey which is the same as the surrounding rocks colours. The hares give birth in the early spring which gives the new born hares plenty of time to grow before the harsh and deadly winter closes in again. With food being scarce in the Arctic the hare survives by eating things such as woody plants, mosses and lichens in the winter, and buds, berries, leaves, roots and even bark in other seasons so they can build up energy to survive in the winter.  To gather enough energy also the hare cannot afford to be picky with what it eats and therefore it has adapted to become an omnivore eating both plants and when it can find some animals.      

   

Tundra Bumble Bee

Animals which special adaptations to life in a cold environment

Tundra bumble bees provide a fascinating example of arctic adaptation. Many insects cease functioning during winter. Since they are "cold-blooded", insect body temperatures are closely related to the temperature of their surroundings. The chemical reactions necessary for insect movement do not occur at cold temperatures. Tundra bumble bees have developed a dense hair on their bodies which slows heat loss to the air. They also "shiver" their flight muscles to generate heat. This heat is temporarily trapped within their velvet coat. Some bumblebees can keep their body temperatures 20-30, degrees C (68-86 degrees F) above air temperatures and are easily active while other insects are too cold to move; therefore tundra bumble bees have the ability to survive the arctic climate.

Polar Bear

Polar Bears can be found in the northern areas of Canada, Alaska, Russia and Norway. Those areas could be described, as Tundra and they are known as cold environments. They spend many months of the year at sea. However, its preferred habitat is the annual sea ice covering the waters over the continental shelf and the Arctic inter-island archipelagos. A polar bear has a layer of fat under its skin, which helps it stay warm. It also has a thick layer of fur. The wide, large paws help a polar bear to walk in the snow, without thinking in it.

The Snowy Owl

The Snowy Owl is circumpolar and can be found in

Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Russia, and many areas

north of the Arctic Circle.  It has a wide distribution area

and will at times migrate to areas south of the Arctic

Circle.  Snowy Owls are among the largest owls in the Arctic as

well as North America.  They range from 1.75 - 2 feet in

length and have a wingspan of 4.5 - 5.5 feet.  Snowy

Owls are white with dark spots, and the amount of spots

will vary from owl to owl.  Some Snowy Owls are virtually

all white.  Snowy Owls have yellow eyes that are fixed in

the eye socket, and they have the ability to move their

heads approximately 270 degrees in both directions.

Snowy Owls have a thick layer of feathers on their body

as well as their feet to enable them to survive in the

tundra. They also have very sensitive hearing and are 

able to hear voles and lemmings deep under the snow.

 SOURCE: tundraanimals.net

Adaptations of the polar bear to cold environments

Large size

Polar bears are the world's largest land-based carnivore, almost 700 kg. This helps them retain their body heat because large animals have a higher volume to surface-area ratio, so they lose less heat through their skin.

Small ears and tail

Appendages that stick out also affect the volume to surface-area ratio and cause more heat loss as discussed above. The polar bear's small ears and tail offer less surface area than large ears or tails, and help maintain body warmth.

Fat

Polar bears have a layer of fat that can be four inches (10 cm) thick. Although their fur is the primary source of insulation, the fat helps keep heat in as well. The milk of polar bears is extremely high in fat and protein, the fatty milk helps small cubs, who are more vulnerable to the cold, put on critically important body weight quickly.

Thick fur

Except for the tip of the nose, polar bears are entirely covered in fur. They have a very thick undercoat, which is even denser than the coats of other bears, as well as longer guard hairs. This insulates them from the cold, even when they are in water. Their fur is also hollow and transparent. Their fur has another use as well: the hairs reflect light, making polar bears look white and helping them camouflage among the snow and ice.

Water repellent fur

Polar bear fur sheds water like a Gore-Tex jacket, so even after a swim, they don't stay wet long. oils in the hair help with this. Water has a very high heat capacity, which causes it to channel heat out of the bear's body, so the faster they dry, the faster they stop losing heat.

Large Anti-Slip Paws

Polar bears have enormous paws! On land, they are like snowshoes, spreading the bear's weight and helping them move across soft snow and thin ice. On ice, they keep the bear from slipping: they have footpads covered by papillae (small soft bumps) and claws that are short, thick, and curved. The paws also are covered in fur for both traction and warmth.

Blogging Task Number 1

Task number 1 is to research an animal or plant that has adapted to life in a cold environment. You must write 100 words on:

Its habitat: Location and type of terrain
The climate in that area
The main adaptations it has and why they are useful in that climate

Deadline: Saturday 12th January